photo: faris munandar/pexels
One of the world’s largest gold and copper mines has generated billions of dollars for Indonesia, but a new academic study says the environmental and social costs borne by Indigenous communities in Papua have remained largely unresolved for decades.
The study, authored by Fredrik Sokoy and published in February 2026 in the international journal Social Sciences & Humanities Open, documents how mining operations by PT Freeport Indonesia have fueled long-standing conflict with the Amungme and Kamoro Indigenous peoples, whose ancestral lands surround the Grasberg mining complex.
Titled “Social conflict between the Amungme and Kamoro traditional tribe and Freeport Indonesia company on environmental impact,” the research analyzes more than two decades of academic literature to trace patterns of environmental degradation, social inequality, and legal disputes linked to large-scale mining in Papua.
Mining without Indigenous Consent
Freeport began operations in Papua in the late 1960s after signing Indonesia’s first mining Contract of Work in 1967. At the time, the agreement was negotiated between the Indonesian government and the U.S.-based company without the involvement of Indigenous communities who had lived on the land for generations.
“For the Amungme and Kamoro, land is not merely an economic asset but a source of identity, spirituality, and survival,” Sokoy wrote in the study. “The absence of consent from Indigenous peoples became the foundation of prolonged conflict.”
The Amungme people inhabit the highland areas near the mine, which they regard as sacred. The Kamoro live downstream in lowland and coastal areas, where rivers and wetlands form the basis of their subsistence economy.
The study notes that mining activities fundamentally altered these landscapes, creating a clash between industrial extraction and Indigenous worldviews.
Environmental Damage Downstream
One of the most contentious issues highlighted in the research is the disposal of mine tailings — waste material left after mineral processing — into river systems flowing toward Kamoro territory.
According to the study, millions of tons of tailings changed river courses, buried wetlands, and damaged mangrove ecosystems along Papua’s southern coast. These environmental changes reduced fish stocks and disrupted traditional food sources for Indigenous communities.
“Environmental degradation has had a direct impact on livelihoods, health, and food security,” Sokoy noted, citing multiple studies documenting declining fish populations and increased sedimentation.
Freeport Indonesia has consistently stated that its tailings management complies with Indonesian regulations and international standards, and that it conducts ongoing environmental monitoring. However, the study argues that regulatory frameworks have historically prioritized industrial interests over Indigenous ecological concerns.
From mountains to oceans, delivered to you. Follow us on Lingkar Bumi WhatsApp Channel.
Wealth Amid Poverty
Despite being home to one of the most lucrative mining operations in the world, Papua remains one of Indonesia’s poorest regions. The study highlights this paradox, noting that massive mineral revenues have not translated into improved living conditions for Indigenous communities.
Employment opportunities at the mine have been uneven. Indigenous Papuans are often hired for low-skilled labor, while higher-paying technical and managerial positions are dominated by non-Papuan workers. This disparity has contributed to feelings of marginalization and economic exclusion.
Corporate social responsibility programs, including infrastructure development and community assistance, have been implemented over the years. But the study concludes that these initiatives have failed to address structural inequalities.
“CSR programs tend to function as compensation rather than empowerment,” Sokoy wrote, adding that many programs lack meaningful community participation.
The research also documents recurring social conflict around the mining area, including protests, demonstrations, and clashes involving security forces.
Since the 1970s, Indigenous resistance to mining activities has at times been met with military and police intervention. Human rights organizations have reported cases of intimidation, arrests, and violence linked to protests near the mine.
While Indonesian authorities argue that security deployments are necessary to protect strategic national assets, the study suggests that militarization has deepened mistrust between Indigenous communities, the state, and the company.
“Security-based approaches have often exacerbated tensions rather than resolved underlying grievances,” Sokoy wrote.
Mapping Research Trends
Rather than conducting field interviews, the study employs a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) using the PRISMA 2020 framework. Sokoy analyzed 109 peer-reviewed articles indexed in Scopus from 2001 to 2024, applying bibliometric tools such as VOSviewer and SciMAT to identify research trends.
Early studies focused primarily on technical and economic aspects of mining. In contrast, more recent research increasingly addresses issues of environmental justice, Indigenous rights, and social conflict.
However, the study finds significant gaps in existing scholarship. Research on the Kamoro people and the long-term ecological effects of tailings in coastal ecosystems remains limited.
“This imbalance reflects a broader marginalization of downstream Indigenous communities in both policy and research,” Sokoy noted.
At the core of the dispute is a clash between Indonesia’s formal legal system and Indigenous customary law. While the state recognizes mining contracts and national regulations, Indigenous communities assert ancestral land rights passed down through generations.
The study argues that Indonesia’s legal framework has struggled to accommodate this legal pluralism. Without formal recognition of customary land tenure, Indigenous claims are often excluded from decision-making processes.
International principles such as Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) are cited as critical safeguards that were absent when Freeport began operations. Although Indonesia has made commitments to Indigenous rights in recent years, implementation remains inconsistent, the study says.
Calls for Reform
Sokoy concludes that the conflict surrounding Freeport’s operations in Papua reflects broader challenges in resource governance across resource-rich regions.
“Economic growth cannot be considered sustainable if it sacrifices environmental integrity and Indigenous survival,” he wrote.
The study calls for stronger recognition of customary land rights, inclusive decision-making processes, independent environmental assessments, and conflict resolution mechanisms based on dialogue rather than coercion.
In 2018, Indonesia finalized a divestment deal that made the state the majority owner of PT Freeport Indonesia. While the move was framed as strengthening national control over natural resources, the study notes that ownership changes alone do not resolve historical grievances.
For the Amungme and Kamoro peoples, the struggle continues. Their demands extend beyond compensation to include recognition, environmental restoration, and respect for Indigenous ways of life.
As Indonesia seeks to balance economic development with social and environmental responsibility, the study concludes that the experience of Papua offers a stark reminder. The true cost of extraction is measured not only in revenue, but in the communities and ecosystems left behind. (Sulung Prasetyo)
